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A Brand New Type of X blade Is Forged One That Will Never Be Able to Be Replicated Again

Written By Monday, 16 May 2022 Add Comment Edit

Type of steel used in Middle Eastern swordmaking

Close-upwardly of a 13th-century Persian-forged Damascus steel sword

Damascus steel was the forged steel of the blades of swords smithed in the About E from ingots of Wootz steel[i] either imported from Southern Republic of india or made in production centres in Sri Lanka,[2] or Khorasan, Iran.[3] These swords are characterized by distinctive patterns of banding and mottling reminiscent of flowing water, sometimes in a "ladder" or "rose" pattern. Such blades were reputed to be tough, resistant to shattering, and capable of being honed to a precipitous, resilient border.[4]

Wootz (Indian), Pulad (Persian), Fuladh (Arabic), Bulat (Russian) and Bintie (Chinese) are all names for historical ultra-high carbon crucible steel typified by carbide segregation.

History [edit]

Origins [edit]

The origin of the name "Damascus Steel" is contentious: the Islamic writers al-Kindi (total proper noun Abu Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, circa 800 CE – 873 CE) and al-Biruni (full name Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni, circa 973 CE – 1048 CE) were both scholars who wrote about swords and steel made for swords, based on their surface appearance, geographical location of production or forging, or the name of the smith, and each mentions "damascene" or "damascus" swords to some extent.

Drawing from al-Kindi and al-Biruni, there are iii potential sources for the term "Damascus" in the context of steel:

  1. The word "damas" is the root word for "watered" in Arabic [v] with "water" being "ma" in Arabic[vi] and Damascus blades are frequently described every bit exhibiting a water-design on their surface, and are often referred to every bit "watered steel" in multiple languages.
  2. Al-Kindi called swords produced and forged in Damascus as Damascene[7] but it is worth noting that these swords were not described every bit having a design in the steel.
  3. Al-Biruni mentions a sword-smith called Damasqui who made swords of crucible steel.[eight]

The most mutual explanation is that steel is named later on Damascus, the capital city of Syria and one of the largest cities in the ancient Levant. It may either refer to swords made or sold in Damascus directly, or it may just refer to the aspect of the typical patterns, by comparing with Damask fabrics (also named for Damascus),[9] [10] or it may indeed stalk from the root word of "damas".

Macroscopic section of crucible steel (left) and simulated color labeling (right) showing rafts rich in carbide forming elements (CFEs) which lead to clustered cementite spheroids, too as divorced cementite spheroids.

Identification of crucible "Damascus" steel based on metallurgical structures [half dozen] is hard, as crucible steel cannot be reliably distinguished from other types of steel by only ane benchmark, so the following distinguishing characteristics of crucible steel must exist taken into consideration:

  • The crucible steel was liquid, leading to a relatively homogeneous steel content with virtually no slag
  • The formation of dendrites is a typical characteristic
  • The segregation of elements into dendritic and interdendritic regions throughout the sample

Past these definitions, mod recreations[11] of crucible steel are consistent with historic examples.

Bin fe: It is produced by the Western Barbarians. Some [types] have a spiral self-patterning, while others have a sesame-seed or snowflake patterning. When a pocketknife or sword is wiped clean and treated with 'gilded thread' alum, [the design] appears. Its value is greater than silver.[12]

—Cao Zhao

The reputation and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, such as the power to cut through a burglarize barrel or to cut a hair falling across the blade, though the accuracy of these legends is not reflected by the extant examples of patterned crucible steel swords which are often tempered in such a fashion every bit to retain a curve afterwards being flexed past their elastic limit.[13] A research team in Germany published a report in 2006 revealing nanowires and carbon nanotubes in a bract forged from Damascus steel,[14] [15] [16] although John Verhoeven of Iowa Land University in Ames, suggests the research team which reported nanowires in crucible steel was seeing cementite, which tin can itself exist as rods, so at that place might not be whatsoever carbon nanotubes in the rod-like structure.[17] Although many types of modern steel outperform aboriginal Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the production process fabricated the blades boggling for their time, as Damascus steel was superplastic and very hard at the aforementioned time. During the smelting process to obtain Wootz steel ingots, woody biomass and leaves are known to have been used equally carburizing additives along with certain specific types of iron rich in microalloying elements. These ingots would then exist further forged and worked into Damascus steel blades. Research at present shows that carbon nanotubes can be derived from establish fibers,[eighteen] suggesting how the nanotubes were formed in the steel. Some experts await to observe such nanotubes in more relics as they are analyzed more closely.[15] Wootz was as well mentioned to have been made out of a co-fusion procedure using "shaburqan " (difficult steel, likely white cast iron) and "narmahan" (soft steel) past Biruni,[19] both of which were forms of either high and low carbon bloomery iron, or depression carbon blossom with cast iron.[20] In such a crucible recipe, no added constitute material is necessary to provide the required carbon content, and as such any nanowires of cementite or carbon nanotubes would not have been the issue of found fibres.

A bladesmith from Damascus, c. 1900

Damascus blades were start manufactured in the Most E from ingots of wootz steel that were imported from Southern Republic of india (present mean solar day Tamil Nadu and Kerala).[1] The Arabs introduced the wootz steel to Damascus, where a weapons manufacture thrived.[21] From the 3rd century to the 17th century, steel ingots were being shipped to the Center Eastward from South Republic of india.[22] In that location was also domestic product of crucible steel exterior of Bharat, including Merv (Turkmenistan) and Chāhak, Iran.[23] [24]

Bin iron, which is produced by the Western Barbarians [Xi Fan 西番], is specially fine. The Bao zang lun states: 'There are five kinds of iron ... [The first two come from Hubei and Jiangxi.] Bin iron is produced in Persia [Bosi 波斯]; information technology is and then hard and abrupt that it can cut gold and jade ... [The terminal two kinds come up from Shanxi and the Southwest.][25]

Loss of the technique [edit]

Many claim that modern attempts to indistinguishable the metal have not been entirely successful due to differences in raw materials and manufacturing techniques. However, several individuals in modern times have successfully produced pattern forming hypereutectoid crucible steel with visible carbide banding on the surface, consistent with original Damascus Steel.[xi] [26] [27]

Product of these patterned swords gradually declined, ceasing by around 1900, with the terminal account being from 1903 in Sri Lanka documented past Coomaraswamy.[6] Some gunsmiths during the 18th and 19th century used the term "damascus steel" to draw their pattern-welded gun barrels, but they did non utilize crucible steel. Several mod theories have ventured to explicate this decline, including the breakdown of trade routes to supply the needed metals, the lack of trace impurities in the metals, the possible loss of knowledge on the crafting techniques through secrecy and lack of manual, suppression of the industry in Bharat by the British Raj,[28] or a combination of all the above.[11] [26] [29]

In add-on to being made into blades in India (particularly Golconda) and Sri Lanka, wootz / ukku was imported equally ingots to various product centers, including Khorasan, and Isfahan, where the steel was used to produce blades, equally well as across the Middle East. Al Kindi states that crucible steel was also made in Khorasan[3] known every bit Muharrar,[30] in addition to steel that was imported.[vii] In Damascus, where many of these swords were sold, there is no evidence of local product of crucible steel, though there is show of imported steel being forged into swords in Damascus.[eleven] [26] Due to the distance of trade for this steel, a sufficiently lengthy disruption of the trade routes could have concluded the production of Damascus steel and eventually led to the loss of the technique. In addition, the need for key trace impurities of carbide formers such every bit tungsten, vanadium or manganese inside the materials needed for the production of the steel may exist absent if this material was acquired from different product regions or smelted from ores lacking these key trace elements.[11] The technique for controlled thermal cycling subsequently the initial forging at a specific temperature could also have been lost, thereby preventing the terminal damask design in the steel from occurring.[11] [26] The disruption of mining and steel manufacture by the British Raj in the course of production taxes and consign bans may have besides contributed to a loss of knowledge of key ore sources or central techniques.[31]

The discovery of carbon nanotubes in the Damascus steel's composition supports the hypothesis that wootz production was halted due to a loss of ore sources or technical noesis, since the precipitation of carbon nanotubes probably resulted from a specific process that may be difficult to replicate should the production technique or raw materials used be significantly altered.[29] The claim that carbon nanowires were constitute has not been confirmed past further studies, and there is contention among academics including John Verhoeven near whether the nanowires observed are actually stretched rafts or rods formed out of cementite spheroids.[17]

Reproduction [edit]

Recreating Damascus steel has been attempted past archaeologists using experimental archaeology. Many take attempted to observe or opposite-engineer the process past which it was fabricated.

Moran: billet welding [edit]

Design on modern "Damascus knife"

Since the well-known technique of pattern welding—the forge-welding of a bract from several differing pieces—produced surface patterns similar to those institute on Damascus blades, some mod blacksmiths were erroneously led to believe that the original Damascus blades were made using this technique. However today, the difference between wootz steel and pattern welding is fully documented and well understood.[32] [33] [34] Pattern-welded steel has been referred to equally "Damascus steel" since 1973 when Bladesmith William F. Moran unveiled his "Damascus knives" at the Knifemakers' Social club Bear witness.[35] [36]

This "Modern Damascus" is made from several types of steel and iron slices welded together to course a billet (semi-finished product), and currently, the term "Damascus" (although technically incorrect) is widely accepted to draw modern pattern-welded steel blades in the merchandise.[37] The patterns vary depending on how the smith works the billet.[36] The billet is fatigued out and folded until the desired number of layers are formed.[36] To attain a Master Smith rating with the American Bladesmith Society that Moran founded, the smith must forge a Damascus blade with a minimum of 300 layers.[38]

Verhoeven and Pendray: crucible [edit]

J. D. Verhoeven and A. H. Pendray published an article on their attempts[39] to reproduce the elemental, structural, and visual characteristics of Damascus steel.[11] They started with a cake of steel that matched the properties of the original wootz steel from Republic of india, which also matched a number of original Damascus swords that Verhoeven and Pendray had admission to. The wootz was in a soft, annealed state, with a grain structure and beads of pure fe carbide in cementite spheroids, which resulted from its hypereutectoid land. Verhoeven and Pendray had already determined that the grains on the surface of the steel were grains of atomic number 26 carbide—their goal was to reproduce the iron carbide patterns they saw in the Damascus blades from the grains in the wootz.

Although such material could be worked at low temperatures to produce the striated Damascene pattern of intermixed ferrite/pearlite and cementite spheroid bands in a manner identical to pattern-welded Damascus steel, any heat treatment sufficient to dissolve the carbides was thought to permanently destroy the design. However, Verhoeven and Pendray discovered that in samples of true Damascus steel, the Damascene design could be recovered by thermally cycling and thermally manipulating the steel at a moderate temperature.[forty] They found that certain carbide forming elements, 1 of which was vanadium, did not disperse until the steel reached higher temperatures than those needed to dissolve the carbides. Therefore, a high rut treatment could remove the visual evidence of patterning associated with carbides but did not remove the underlying patterning of the carbide forming elements; a subsequent lower-temperature heat treatment, at a temperature at which the carbides were once again stable, could recover the structure past the binding of carbon by those elements and causing the segregation of cementite spheroids to those locations. Thermal cycling later forging allows for the aggregation of carbon onto these carbide formers, every bit carbon migrates much more rapidly than the carbide formers. Progressive thermal cycling leads to the coarsening of the cementite spheroids via Ostwald ripening.

Anosov, Wadsworth and Sherby: bulat [edit]

In Russia, chronicles record the employ of a material known equally bulat steel to make highly valued weapons, including swords, knives, and axes. Tsar Michael of Russia reportedly had a bulat helmet made for him in 1621. The exact origin or the manufacturing process of the bulat is unknown, but it was likely imported to Russia via Persia and Turkestan, and information technology was like and peradventure the same as Damascus steel. Pavel Petrovich Anosov made several attempts to reproduce the process in the mid-19th century. Wadsworth and Sherby also researched [26] the reproduction of bulat steel and published their results in 1980.

Cementite crystal structure. Fe atoms are in blue, carbon atoms are in blackness.

Boosted research [edit]

A squad of researchers based at the Technical Academy of Dresden that used x-rays and electron microscopy to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of cementite nanowires[41] and carbon nanotubes.[14] Peter Paufler, a fellow member of the Dresden team, says that these nanostructures are a result of the forging process.[15] [42]

Sanderson proposes that the process of forging and annealing accounts for the nano-scale structures.[42]

In gunmaking [edit]

Prior to the early on 20th century, all shotgun barrels were forged by heating narrow strips of iron and steel and shaping them around a mandrel.[43] [44] This procedure was referred to every bit "laminating" or "Damascus".[43] [44] These types of barrels earned a reputation for weakness and were never meant to be used with modern smokeless powder, or whatsoever kind of moderately powerful explosive.[44] Because of the resemblance to Damascus steel, higher-end barrels were made by Belgian and British gun makers.[43] [44] These barrels are proof marked and meant to be used with light force per unit area loads.[43] Current gun manufacturers make slide assemblies and pocket-sized parts such equally triggers and safeties for Colt M1911 pistols from powdered Swedish steel resulting in a swirling ii-toned upshot; these parts are often referred to as "Stainless Damascus".[45]

Cultural references [edit]

The blade that Beowulf used to kill Grendel's female parent in the story Beowulf was described in some Modern English translations equally "damascened".[46] [47]

The uncommonly stiff fictional Valyrian steel mentioned in George R. R. Martin'due south book series A Vocal of Ice and Fire, also every bit its television adaptation Game of Thrones, appears to have been inspired past Damascus steel, but with a magic twist.[48] Merely similar Damascus/Wootz steel, Valyrian steel also seems to be a lost fine art from an aboriginal civilization. Unlike Damascus steel, however, Valyrian steel blades require no maintenance and cannot exist damaged through normal combat.

Damascus Steel is also a special cease for the SG 553, along with many knives in Counter Strike: Global Offensive.

In Call of Duty: Modern Warfare (2019) and Phone call of Duty: Mobile, irised bluish and red Damascus steel weapon camouflage is available for players who have unlocked all other camouflages for every base of operations weapon in the game.

Run across too [edit]

  • Toledo steel
  • Wootz steel
  • Noric steel
  • Bulat steel
  • Tamahagane steel
  • Laminated steel blade
  • Tungsten carbide

References [edit]

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    • "Secret's out for Saracen sabres". New Scientist. 8 November 2006.
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  41. ^ Kochmann, W.; Reibold, Marianne; Goldberg, Rolf; Hauffe, Wolfgang; Levin, Alexander A; Meyer, Dirk C; Stephan, Thurid; Müller, Heide; Belger, André; Paufler, Peter (2004). "Nanowires in ancient Damascus steel". Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 372 (1–2): L15–L19. doi:ten.1016/j.jallcom.2003.10.005. ISSN 0925-8388.
    Levin, A. A.; Meyer, D. C.; Reibold, M.; Kochmann, Due west.; Pätzke, N.; Paufler, P. (2005). "Microstructure of a genuine Damascus sabre" (PDF). Crystal Research and Technology. 40 (ix): 905–916. doi:10.1002/crat.200410456. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-03-xv.
  42. ^ a b Sanderson, K. (2006). "Sharpest cut from nanotube sword". Nature. 444: 286. doi:10.1038/news061113-11. S2CID 136774602.
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External links [edit]

  • "Damascene Technique in Metallic Working"
  • Verhoeven, J.D.; Pendray, A.H.; Dauksch, W.Eastward. (September 2004). "The continuing written report of damascus steel: Bars from the Alwar Armory". JOM. 56 (9): 17–20. Bibcode:2004JOM....56i..17V. doi:ten.1007/s11837-004-0193-iv. S2CID 137555792.
  • Verhoeven, J.D. (2007). "Pattern Germination in Wootz Damascus Steel Swords and Blades" (PDF). Indian Journal of History of Science. 42 (4): 559–574.
  • John Verhoeven: Mystery of Damascus Steel Swords Unveiled
  • Wagner, Donald B. (2008), Science and Civilisation in People's republic of china Volume v-xi: Ferrous Metallurgy, Cambridge University Press
  • Loades, Mike; Pendray, Al (21 November 2017). The Secrets of Wootz Damascus Steel. YouTube. Archived from the original on 2021-xi-17.
  • US 5185044, Verhoeven, J.D. & Pendray, A.H., "Method of making "Damascus" blades", published ix February 1993

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_steel

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